THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NUTRITION AND AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER: A REVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED AND UNPROVEN DIETARY INTERVENTIONS
 |
Szerzők: Cím: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NUTRITION AND AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER: A REVIEW OF EVIDENCE-BASED AND UNPROVEN DIETARY INTERVENTIONS DOI: https://doi.org/10.71066/FTTMK.1.12 Megjelent: 2025. december
|
ABSTRACT
Several diets have been touted in recent years as possible assistance in autism, frequently based on anecdotal parental accounts or popular internet recommendations. The most popular are gluten- and casein-free, ketogenic, and other exclusionary diets. To see if any of these are supported in current research, five such studies published after 2021 were chosen and examined in our review. Consistency is lacking in the results. While several small trials show minimal improvement in selected areas, the majority of results remain inconclusive or compromised due to flawed methodology. Some diets also pose a potential risk for nutrition-related harm. Balanced, varied nutrition, particularly that which is beneficial to intestinal health, may prove more practical, in any case, due in part to the newly established associations between autism and gut imbalances in microbes.
KEYWORDS
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Dietary Interventions, Gut Microbiota
REFERENCES
Ābele S. - Meija L. - Folkmanis V. - Tzivian L.: 2021. Specific carbohydrate diet (SCD/GAPS) and dietary supplements for children with autistic spectrum disorder. In: Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences, Vol. 75, No. 6, pp. 417-425. De Gruyter Poland.
https://doi.org/10.2478/prolas-2021-0062
Abuaish S. - Al-Otaibi N. M. - Abujamel T. S. - Alzahrani S. A. - Alotaibi S. M. - AlShawakir Y. A. - El-Ansary A.: 2021. Fecal transplant and Bifidobacterium treatments modulate gut Clostridium bacteria and rescue social impairment and hippocampal BDNF expression in a rodent model of autism. Brain Sciences, 11(8), 1038.
https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081038
Adıgüzel E. - Çiçek B.: 2023. Dietary Approaches and Nutritional Supplements in the Management of Autism Spectrum Disorder. In: Autismo: Uma Abordagem Multiprofissional, Vol. 1, pp. 58-86. Editora Científica Digital.
https://doi.org/10.37885/230613484
Akhalil M. - Çiftçi S. - Batu Z.: 2023. Nutrition Therapy Approaches in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Farabi Tıp Dergisi, 2(2), pp. 33-42.
https://doi.org/10.59518/farabimedj.1237543
Al Dera H. - Alrafaei B. - Al Tamimi M. I. - Alfawaz H. A. - Bhat R. S. - Soliman D. A. - El-Ansary A.: 2021. Leaky gut biomarkers in casein-and gluten-rich diet fed rat model of autism. Translational Neuroscience, 12(1), pp. 601-610.
https://doi.org/10.1515/tnsci-2020-0207
Allan N. P. - Yamamoto B. Y. - Kunihiro B. P. - Nunokawa C. K. - Rubas N. C. - Wells R. K. - Maunakea A. K.: 2024. Ketogenic diet induced shifts in the gut microbiome associate with changes to inflammatory cytokines and brain-related miRNAs in children with autism Spectrum disorder. Nutrients, 16(10), 1401.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16101401
Banerjee S.: 2023. A Review of the Effectiveness of Various Diet types on Autism. Journal of Mental Health Issues and Behavior (JMHIB), ISSN 2799-1261.
https://doi.org/10.55529/jmhib.31.1.7
Blendea L. - Miler A. A. - Csabai J. - Trifan A. - Gurzu I. L. - Novac B. - Novac O. - Petroaie A. D. - Balmus I. M. - Timofte D. V.: 2025. From traditional medical patterns to artificial intelligence: The applicability of digital biomarkers in reinventing personalised nutrition. Brain. Broad Research in Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience, 16(Sp. Issue 1: Neuroscience, Artificial Intelligence, and Innovation in Education), 179-192.
https://doi.org/10.70594/brain/16.S1/15
Bougeard C. - Picarel-Blanchot F. - Schmid R. - Campbell R. - Buitelaar J.: 2021. Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder and co-morbidities in children and adolescents: a systematic literature review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 744709.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.744709
Briglia M. - Allia F. - Avola R. - Signorini C. - Cardile V. - Romano G. L. - Graziano A. C. E.: 2024. Diet and Nutrients in Rare Neurological Disorders: Biological, Biochemical, and Pathophysiological Evidence. Nutrients, 16(18), 3114.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16183114
Brown C. M. - Newell V. - Sahin E. - Hedley D.: 2024. Updated systematic review of suicide in autism: 2018-2024. Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 11(4), pp. 225-256.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-024-00308-9
Chamtouri M. - Merghni A. - Miranda-Cadena K. - Sakly N. - Gaddour N. - de Los Reyes-Gavilán C. G. - Mastouri M. - Eraso E. - Quindós G.: 2024. Characterization of Yeast Isolated from the Gut Microbiota of Tunisian Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Fungi, 10(11), 730.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10110730
Chen Y. C. - Lin H. Y. - Chien Y. - Tung Y. H. - Ni Y. H. - Gau S. S. F.: 2022. Altered gut microbiota correlates with behavioral problems but not gastrointestinal symptoms in individuals with autism. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 106, pp. 161-178.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2022.08.015
Croall I. D. - Hoggard N. - Hadjivassiliou M.: 2021. Gluten and autism spectrum disorder. Nutrients, 13(2), 572.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020572
Gardener H. - Spiegelman D. - Buka S. L.: 2009. Prenatal risk factors for autism: comprehensive meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 195, pp. 7-14.
https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051672
Hakim R. Y. N. - Tamtomo D. G. - Murti B.: 2023. Effect of gluten free casein free diet on maladaptive behavior in autistic children: meta-analysis.
Herbert M. R. - Buckley J. A.: 2013. Autism and dietary therapy: case report and review of the literature. Journal of Child Neurology, 28(8), pp. 975-982.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073813488668
Herman A. - Herman A. P.: 2022. Could Candida overgrowth be involved in the pathophysiology of autism? Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11(2), 442.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11020442
Indika N. L. R. - Frye R. E. - Rossignol D. A. - Owens S. C. - Senarathne U. D. - Grabrucker A. M. - Deutz N. E.: 2023. The rationale for vitamin, mineral, and cofactor treatment in the precision medical care of autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 13(2), 252.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm13020252
Chamtouri M. - Merghni A. - Miranda-Cadena K. - Sakly N. - Gaddour N. - de Los Reyes-Gavilán C. G. - Mastouri M. - Eraso E. - Quindós G.: 2024. Characterization of Yeast Isolated from the Gut Microbiota of Tunisian Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Fungi, 10(11), 730. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10110730
https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10110730
Kawicka A. - Regulska-Ilow B.: 2013. How nutritional status, diet and dietary supplements can affect autism. A review. Roczniki Państwowego Zakładu Higieny, 64(1).
Keski-Rahkonen A. - Ruusunen A.: 2023. Avoidant-restrictive food intake disorder and autism: epidemiology, etiology, complications, treatment, and outcome. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 36(6), pp. 438-442.
https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000896
Muhle R. - Trentacoste S. V. - Rapin I.: 2004. The genetics of autism. Pediatrics, 113(5), e472-e486.
https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.113.5.e472
Kandeel W. A. - Meguid N. A. - Bjørklund G. - Eid E. M. - Farid M. - Mohamed S. K. - Hammad D. Y.: 2020. Impact of Clostridium bacteria in children with autism spectrum disorder and their anthropometric measurements. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 70(6), 897-907.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-020-01482-2
Kaya G. - Taşci S. Ç.: 2023. Different approaches to nutrition in children with autism spectrum disorder. Sağlık Bilimleri Çalışmaları, 83.
Keller A. - Rimestad M. L. - Friis Rohde J. - Holm Petersen B. - Bruun Korfitsen C. - Tarp S. - Händel M. N.: 2021. The effect of a combined gluten- and casein-free diet on children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 13(2), 470.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020470
Konstantynowicz J. - Porowski T. - Zoch-Zwierz W. - Wasilewska J. - Kadziela-Olech H. - Kulak W. - Owens S. C. - Piotrowska-Jastrzebska J. - Kaczmarski M.: 2012. A potential pathogenic role of oxalate in autism. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 16(5), pp. 485-491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2011.08.004
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2011.08.004
Leeuwendaal N. K. - Stanton C. - O'Toole P. W. - Beresford T. P.: 2022. Fermented foods, health and the gut microbiome. Nutrients, 14(7), 1527.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14071527
Li Q. - Liang J. - Fu N. - Han Y. - Qin J.: 2021. A ketogenic diet and the treatment of autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 9, 650624.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2021.650624
Liu S. - Xi H. - Xue X. - Sun X. - Huang H. - Fu D. - Zheng P.: 2024. Clostridium butyricum regulates intestinal barrier function via trek1 to improve behavioral abnormalities in mice with autism spectrum disorder. Cell & Bioscience, 14(1), 95.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13578-024-01278-6
Matthews J. S. - Adams J. B.: 2023. Ratings of the effectiveness of 13 therapeutic diets for autism spectrum disorder: Results of a national survey. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 13(10), 1448.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm13101448
Mazurek A. - Machaj D. - Polak J. - Grobecki D. - Lis J. - Adamik W.: 2023. The role of diet and supplementation in the prevention and treatment of autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Education, Health and Sport, 26(1), pp. 11-16.
https://doi.org/10.12775/JEHS.2023.26.01.001
Nagpal D. - Nema S. - Nagpal S. - Pandey M. M. - Kaushik D. - Kathuria H.: 2025. Management and prevention of neurodegenerative disorders: Can antioxidant-rich dietary interventions help? Antioxidants, 14(9), 1078.
https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox14091078
Nirmalkar K. - Patel J. - Kang D. W. - Bellinghiere A. - Bowes D. A. - Qureshi F. - Krajmalnik-Brown R.: 2024. Bimodal distribution of intestinal Candida in children with autism and its potential link with worse ASD symptoms. Gut Microbes Reports, 1(1), 2358324.
https://doi.org/10.1080/29933935.2024.2358324
Olivito I. - Avolio E. - Minervini D. - Soda T. - Rocca C. - Angelone T. - Facciolo R. M.: 2023. Ketogenic diet ameliorates autism spectrum disorders-like behaviors via reduced inflammatory factors and microbiota remodeling in BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J mice. Experimental Neurology, 366, 114432.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2023.114432
Önal S. - Sachadyn-Król M. - Kostecka M.: 2023. A review of the nutritional approach and the role of dietary components in children with autism spectrum disorders in light of the latest scientific research. Nutrients, 15(23), 4852.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15234852
Peretti S. - Mariano M. - Mazzocchetti C. - Mazza M. - Pino M. C. - Verrotti Di Pianella A. - Valenti M.: 2019. Diet: The keystone of autism spectrum disorder? Nutritional Neuroscience, 22(12), pp. 825-839.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1028415X.2018.1464819
Retnaningtyas Y. - Dianasari D. - Elavia L. I. D. - Munawaroh U.: 2022. Identification of Candida species in faeces of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) carbohydrate and non-carbohydrates diets. AcTion: Aceh Nutrition Journal, 7(2), pp. 197-204.
https://doi.org/10.30867/action.v7i2.746
Risky S. A. K. - Pratiwi S. E. - Ilmiawan M. I.: 2024. Overview of gluten-free casein-free diet application in children with autism spectrum disorder. Biomedika, pp. 48-58.
https://doi.org/10.23917/biomedika.v16i1.3854
Rodop B. B. - Başkaya E. - Altuntaş İ. - Erbaş O.: 2021. Nutrition effect on autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Experimental and Basic Medical Sciences, 2(1), 007-017.
Salari N. - Rasoulpoor S. - Shohaimi S. - Jafarpour S. - Abdoli N. - Mohammadi M.: 2022. The global prevalence of autism spectrum disorder: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 48(1), 112.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-022-01310-w
Saxami G. - Mitsou E. K. - Kerezoudi E. N. - Mavrouli I. - Vlassopoulou M. - Koutrotsios G. - Kyriacou A.: 2023. In vitro fermentation of edible mushrooms: Effects on faecal microbiota characteristics of autistic and neurotypical children. Microorganisms, 11(2), 414.
https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11020414
Schrickel A. - Groeneweg J. - Dekeyster E.: 2025. Exploring the potential of the ketogenic diet in autism spectrum disorder: Metabolic, genetic, and therapeutic insights. Metabolic Brain Disease, 40(1), 94.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11011-024-01518-1
Tajadod S. - Roumi Z. - Abbas Torki S. - Mousavi Shalmani S. H. - Moradi M. - Saeedirad Z. - Doaei S.: 2025. The association between autism spectrum disorders and dietary intake of carbohydrates in school‐aged children in Iran: A case-control study. Neuropsychopharmacology Reports, 45(1), e12521.
https://doi.org/10.1002/npr2.12521
Talantseva O. I. - Romanova R. S. - Shurdova E. M. - Dolgorukova T. A. - Sologub P. S. - Titova O. S. - Grigorenko E. L.: 2023. The global prevalence of autism spectrum disorder: A three-level meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1071181.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1071181
Thapar A. - Livingston L. A. - Eyre O. - Riglin L.: 2023. Practitioner review: Attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder - The importance of depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 64(1), pp. 4-15.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13678
Tosun Ş. - Mendes B.: 2022. Current nutritional approaches in the treatment of autism spectrum disorder. KASAV International Journal of Health Sciences, 5(3), pp. 79-85.
Vasile A. - Ciobîcă A. - Kamal F. Z. - Mavroudis I. - Plăvan G. - Selamoglu Z. - Boufahja F. - Csabai J.: 2024. Latest developments on the connections between diet and most of the neuropsychiatric disorders. Buletin de Psihiatrie Integrativa, 30(2), 105-119.
https://doi.org/10.36219/BPI.2024.2.11
Varesio C. - Grumi S. - Zanaboni M. P. - Mensi M. M. - Chiappedi M. - Pasca L. - De Giorgis V.: 2021. Ketogenic dietary therapies in patients with autism spectrum disorder: Facts or fads? A scoping review and a proposal for a shared protocol. Nutrients, 13(6), 2057.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13062057
Zafirovski K. - Aleksoska M. T. - Thomas J. - Hanna F.: 2024. Impact of gluten-free and casein-free diet on behavioural outcomes and quality of life of autistic children and adolescents: A scoping review. Children, 11(7), 862.
https://doi.org/10.3390/children11070862
Zeidan J. - Fombonne E. - Scorah J. - Ibrahim A. - Durkin M. S. - Saxena S. - Elsabbagh M.: 2022. Global prevalence of autism: A systematic review update. Autism Research, 15(5), pp. 778-790.
https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2696
Zhang Y. - Guo M. - Zhang H. - Wang Y. - Li R. - Liu Z. - You C.: 2022. Lactiplantibacillus plantarum ST-III-fermented milk improves autistic-like behaviors in valproic acid-induced autism spectrum disorder mice by altering gut microbiota. Frontiers in Nutrition, 9, 1005308.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.1005308